1864 is characterized as the result of a crisis in Russian society. The defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 formed the prerequisites for creating a revolutionary situation. Assessing what is happening in the country, Alexander II understands the need for reforms in the country. The judicial reform of 1864 changed the feudal system in the state. This was a significant progress in the development of Russian society.
The pre-reform judicial structure is characterized by intricacies, complexity of procedural requirements, lack of advocacy, juries, a large number of organs, red tape, bribery, bureaucracy.
In feudal Russia at that time, a narrow-class direct dependence on the administration dominated. Numerous and diverse instances were distinguished by the inquisitorial nature of the conduct of the process, which was based on formal evidence theory. The Judicial Reform of 1864 brought significant changes to this structure.
The transformations reflected the interests of the bourgeoisie - a class that needed to strengthen its position. This could be achieved only by equalizing, albeit formally, everyone before the court. Thus, the judicial reform of 1864 established the foundations of bourgeois legality. The transformations were manifested primarily in the introduction of the bar, the involvement of the jury, the reorganization of the prosecutor's office. The changes also implied a new organization of instances and the
An effective and original system was formed. Judicial statutes of 1864 contributed to the development of this structure. So, the new system had two subsystems, which were united by the highest body - the Senate. The structure included world and general courts, these branches, in turn, included bodies of special jurisdiction (commercial, volost, military and others), the formation of which was provided for by other legislative acts.
The judicial reform of 1864 contributed to the creation of a system of general courts. District authorities were referred to the first instance. In each district, a court was established to hear criminal as well as civil cases that were not within the jurisdiction of justices of the peace.
At the same time, in the process of transformation, a new system was formed in
Thus, a new idea and understanding of justice and legality was formed in the state.
Judicial statutes in pre-revolutionary Russia were called laws approved in 1864, on November 20:
- The Law of Judicial Ordinances transferred power to the conventions of judges, district, world ordinances, chambers and the Senate.
- The charter about the punishments imposed by world courts. This code defined crimes against the political and social system, the order of government and other things. These offenses were separated from the Code of Correctional and Criminal Punishments.
- The law code determined the competence of the bodies to consider the relevant cases. In addition, the law established the order of production in world and general devices, general provisions. Based on the code, the main
- Charter on civil proceedings. The Civil Procedure Code distinguished between the conduct of a case in general bodies and in judicial-administrative, world institutions.
As a result of the reforms, not only the judicial structure has changed. New, bourgeois-democratic principles of conducting trials were formed, which assumed competitiveness, publicity, orality. The creation of some bodies was carried out using an elective system. A fairly clear structure of judicial instances was also formed.
1) All-estate court
2) Competitiveness of the parties
3) Independence of the judiciary
4) Controlled by law
8. World Court ...
1) It's a court that decides petty cases
2) Criminal Court
3) Military Court
4) Trial by jury in Russia
9. The method of manning the army according to the military reform of the era of the reign of Alexander II:
1) Universal conscription
2) Recruitment kits
3) Local militia
4) Indelta system
10. Compare the events of the era of liberal reforms of Alexander II:
1874 - 1) military reform
1864 - 2) judicial and zemstvo reform
1861 - 3) the abolition of serfdom
1870 - 4) urban reform
11. Populism is characterized by the following two features:
1) faith in the people
2) ideas of communal socialism
3) liberalism
4) focus on Europe
12. The idea of peasant socialism is typical for ...:
1) Legal Marxists
2) Cadets
3) Slavophiles
4) Populists
13. The first social democratic organization in Russia was called:
one) " Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class»
3) "Black redistribution"
4) "Land and freedom"
14. The ideological trend that affirms the inevitability and necessity of the class struggle and the leading role of the working class (proletariat) in the development of modern society is called ...:
1) Liberalism
2) Socialism
3) Historical materialism
4) Marxism
15. Liberalism is an ideology that is characterized by two characteristic features:
1) Equality of legal rights
3) Socialization of state property
4) Private property relations as the basis of the economy
16. Revolutionary democrats include:
1) V.I. Lenin, L.D. Trotsky, N.I. Bukharin
2) N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev
3) V.M. Purishkevich, K.P. Pobedonostsev
4) I.S. Aksakov, A.S. Khomyakov
17. The main method of struggle of the party "Narodnaya Volya" was:
1) Propaganda
2) Terror
3) Parliamentary struggle
4) Strike movement
18. The propaganda trend in populism is represented by:
1) A.I. Herzen
2) M.A. Bakunin
3) P.L. Lavrov
19. M.A. Bakunin was the leader:
2) Rebellious direction in populism
3)
4) Legal Marxism
20. Tkachev's theory of revolution was the theoretical basis:
1) Propaganda direction in populism
2) Rebellious trend in populism
3) conspiratorial trend in populism
4) Conservatism
21. The main cause of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. was:
1) Balkan crisis
2) Caucasian war
3) The struggle of the Greeks for independence
4) Islamic fundamentalism in the south of Russia
22. Members of the Triple Alliance:
1) France, Russia, USA
2) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
3) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey
4) Germany, Turkey, Japan
23. The classical liberal party of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century:
1) Cadets
3) Bolsheviks
24. The Center Party, which supported the reform policy of the government in 1905:
3) "Union of Michael the Archangel"
25. The First State Duma of Russia was convened in:
26. Third of June coup made:
1) Russian officers
2) V.I. Lenin
3) Nicholas II
27. The allocated plot of land without eviction from the village is called:
1) Cut
3) Concession
28. Highlight two forms of land use that the peasants could use after the dissolution of the community:
1) Graveyards
2) Farms
3) Segments
4) Cut
29. Progressive bloc organized…:
2) Bolsheviks, Progressives and Mensheviks
3) Progressives and Socialist-Revolutionaries
4) Reactionaries, conservatives and clerics
30. The main members of the Entente in 1914:
1) Russia, UK, USA
2) Russia, UK, France, Italy
3) Russia, UK, France
4) Germany, Turkey, Austria-Hungary
31. Time of existence of serfdom:
1) End of the 16th century – 1861
2) 1649 - 1861
3) 1497 - 1861
4) 1547-1906
32. What 2 points are not curias at the choice of zemstvos:
1) Landowner
2) Urban
3) Noble
4) merchant
33. The doctrine, the central postulate of which is the complete denial of traditions, norms, social principles and authorities, is:
1) Radicalism
2) Nihilism
34. Choose two politicians who can be classified as legal Marxists:
1) F. Engels
2) M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky
3) P.B. Struve
4) L.D. Trotsky
35. The political direction that upholds the value of the state and social order, rejection of radical reforms and extremism, focusing on the natural, evolutionary development of society and the preservation of its traditions is called:
1) Nationalism
2) Labor
3) Conservatism
4) Liberalism
1) Parliament
2) Freedom of conscience
3) Constitution
4) Cancellation of redemption payments
37. What two signs are not obligatory for a political party:
1) State funding
2) Participation in parliamentary activities
3) Ideology
4) Social base
38. Russia made a separate peace with Germany:
4) 3.03.1918
DE 06. Russia 1917-1922
1. Who was elected chairman of the Constituent Assembly of Russia:
1) V.I. Lenin
2) L.B. Kamenev
3) V.M. Chernov
4) L.D. Trotsky
2. Name the date of opening and dispersal of the Constituent Assembly:
3. After the July crisis of the Provisional Government, the head of the provisional government for the first time became:
1) A. Guchkov
2) G. Lvov
3) P. Milyukov
4) A. Kerensky
4. Who headed the Provisional Government in March 1917:
1) P.N. Milyukov
2) A.F. Kerensky
3) A.S. Chkheidze
4) G.E. Lviv
1) cadets
2) Mensheviks
3) Bolsheviks
4) SRs
6. Russia was proclaimed a republic:
7. The event that caused the first crisis of the Provisional Government:
1) Kornilov rebellion
2) Brest Peace
3) Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly
4) Note P.N. Milyukov on the readiness to wage war to a victorious end
8. Speech by General L.G. Kornilov and his arrest by decision of the Provisional Government took place:
9. The rebellion of the general, the Supreme Commander, who in August 1917 moved troops to Petrograd in order to establish a military dictatorship, went down in history:
1) "Antonovshchina"
2) " Kornilovshchina"
3) "Bironism"
4) dual power
10. The policy of "war communism" is characterized by the concept:
1) Golden ruble
2) Stakhanovite movement
3) Cartel
4) surplus appropriation
11. Specify the event of the period of the civil war:
1) appointment of A.F. Kerensky
2) Kornilov rebellion
3) The defeat of Kolchak's army
4) Uprising on the battleship "Potemkin"
12. The armed uprising of which units in May 1918 spread the civil war to most of the territory of Russia:
1) the army of Admiral A.V. Kolchak
2) Czechoslovak Corps
3) Cossack units of A.F. Kerensky and P.A. Krasnova
4) Volunteer army
13. Prodrazverstka:
1) pay system according to work
2) cash tax from peasants
3) a form of universal labor service
4) system of forcible seizure of food from peasants
14. For what purpose were committees of the poor created:
1) carrying out the "red terror"
2) fighting in the rear of the White armies
3) seizure of valuables from manufacturers and merchants
4) seizures of bread in the village
15. What did the “Red Guard attack” on capital mean in 1917-1918:
1) the beginning of mass repressions against the bourgeoisie
2) "export" of the world revolution by the forces of the Red Army to Europe
3) accelerated nationalization of large, medium and small enterprises
4) attack by the Red Guards on wealthy peasants
16. Set the sequence of events of the first years of Soviet power:
1) the introduction of food dictatorship
2) the signing of the Brest Peace
3) formation of the USSR
4) opening of the Constituent Assembly
Sample answer: 4,2,1,3
17. Food dictatorship in May 1918 was introduced with the aim of:
1) confiscation of landed estates
2) fight against hunger
3) out of the war
4) nationalization of property
18. The chronological framework of the New Economic Policy (NEP) is the period:
1) 1917-1921
2) 1921-1929
3) 1925-1936
4) 1946-1953
19. The goal of industrialization in the USSR:
1) priority development of light and food industries
2) achieving economic independence
3) creation of a base for the development of small-scale peasant farming
4) removal of obstacles to the development of foreign trade relations
20. Prodrazverstka was replaced by a tax in kind in what year:
3) 1921
21. Totalitarianism is characterized by:
1) The presence of a single mass party
2) Minimizing the activities of the opposition
3) Recognition of the principles of democracy
4) All-encompassing control in all spheres of public and private life of citizens
22. Federation is:
1) form of government in which the territory is not divided into autonomous parts
2) a union of states creating a single state with common authorities and administration
3) internal self-government of a certain territory of the state
4) creation of federal districts
23. Which of the leaders of the Red Army led the suppression of the "Antonovshchina" uprising of the Tambov and Voronezh peasants in 1920-1921:
1) M.V. Frunze
2) M.N. Tukhachevsky
3) K.E. Voroshilov
4) S.M. Budyonny
24. What event happened in Yekaterinburg in July 1918:
1) the murder of G. Rasputin
2) Komuch organization
3) execution of the royal family
4) the assassination of the German ambassador
25. The measure of the New Economic Policy (NEP) was (was):
1) the abolition of money circulation
2) complete nationalization of all industry
3) militarization of labor
4) private trade permit
26. The source of the industrialization of the USSR:
1) foreign loans
2) devaluation of the ruble
3) village robbery
4) loan from commercial banks
27. The complete collectivization of agriculture ended:
1) a sharp rise in the living standards of the peasantry
2) the establishment of private ownership of land
3) the transition to the policy of "war communism"
4) liquidation of the individual peasant economy
28. The transformation of agriculture in the USSR in the late 1920s and early 1930s is:
1) socialization
2) nationalization
3) collectivization
4) concentration
29. I.V. Stalin announced the end of the NEP in:
2) 1929
30. Indicate the correct chronological sequence of foreign policy events of the 1920-1930s:
1) the beginning of the strip of diplomatic recognition of the USSR
2) Ranal Treaty with Germany
3) The entry of the USSR into the league of nations
4) Soviet-Finnish war
Sample answer: 2,1,3,4
31. Dual power reflected two alternatives in the revolution:
1) liberal
2) conservative
3) radical
4) neo-populist
32. The Provisional Government, trying to transform the political system of Russia, assumed:
1) proclaim Russia a republic
2) establish a bicameral parliament
3) call a Constituent Assembly
4) introduce an interim constitution
33. Order No. 1 of the Petrosoviet carried out:
1) disbanding the army
2) the election of the command staff
3) reorganization of the army
4) abolishing titles and saluting
34. The Constituent Assembly was convened at:
35. Indicate the position shared by the Provisional Government::
1) introduce an 8-hour working day
2) radical democratization is needed in the army
3) hold elections for a Constituent Assembly
36. When a coalition Provisional Government was created with the participation of representatives Petrosoviet::
2) in May 1917
4) in May 1918
37. What was the manifestation of the Bolshevization of the Soviets - a characteristic phenomenon in the autumn of 1917:
1) in the adoption of a decree on the arrest of the leaders of the civil war against the revolution
2) adoption of the constitution of the RSFSR
4) in the dissolution of the constituent assembly
38. The reason for the start of a large-scale civil war in Soviet Russia was (moose):
1) transition to a new economic policy
2) Lena shooting at the Goldfields
3) introduction of a food dictatorship
4) the creation of a tripartite Union
39. Socio-economic policy of the Soviet state in the period 1918-1920. got the name:
1) liberal
2) communist
3) new economic
four) " war communism»
40. The views of the participants in the White Movement were ambiguous, but the main ones stood out:
1) military dictatorship
2) restoration of the monarchy
3) convocation of the Constituent Assembly
4) all of the above are correct
41. Match the events of the Civil War and the names of the leaders of the white movement who took part in them:
1) A.V. Kolchak 1) Southwestern Front
2) A.I. Denikin 2) white Crimea
3) N.N. Yudenich 3) Eastern Front
4) P.V. Wrangel 4) white Northwest
Sample answer: 1)-3), 2)-1), 3)-4), 4)-2).
42. Arrange the events in chronological order:
1) an attempt on V.I. Lenin
2) landing of the British in Murmansk
3) the proclamation of A.V. Kolchak "supreme ruler of Russia"
4) armed action of the Czechoslovak corps
Sample answer: 2,4,1,4
43. The first period of the civil war covers the time:
2) social
3) agricultural
4) religious
45. Specify the event of the period of the Civil War:
1) Kornilov rebellion
2) Creation of the Entente
3) Manchurian operation
4) Mutiny of the Czechoslovak Corps
46. During the civil war in 1919, a directive was adopted by the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) on the decossackization of the Cossacks. What is its essence:
1) about the revival of the Cossacks
2) Cossacks support of the throne
3) the Cossacks have no merit to the people and the state
4) mass decossackization of Cossacks and their families
47. The socio-political policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the civil war is characterized by:
1) food tax
2) complete freedom of trade
3) expansion of the rights of peasants to land
4) surplus appropriation
48. After the October Revolution in Russia, the transition of enterprises and sectors of the economy to the ownership of the state began, which was called:
1) integration
2) nationalization
3) concentration
4) confiscation
50. detachments of workers and peasants created in Russia in 1918-1921. for surplus appraisal, were called:
1) zemstvos
2) workers' faculties
3) food orders
4) combos
51. Committees of the Poor:
1) participated in the collectivization in the 30s. XX century
2) engaged in the redistribution of land in the spring of 1918 G.
3) made orders to the deputies of the State Duma
4) participated in the resettlement movement
52. There are two concepts related to the period of the new economic policy:
1) food order
2) confiscation of landed estates
3) food tax
4) marketing crisis
53. What is a "concession":
1) Government loan
2) Anti-inflation measure
3) Enterprise with the participation of foreign capital
4) Underground political organization
54. The method based on the comparison of costs and results of economic activity is called:
1) integration
2) cooperation
3) cost accounting
4) creation of monopolistic associations
55. What do the words "Philosophical steamboat" mean:
1) the trip of the delegation of the Soviet state to negotiate the resumption of trade relations
2) uninterrupted supply of the city with products
3) the withdrawal from the country of people who do not agree with the policy of the Soviet government
56. Autonomy was granted by the interim government to:
1) Ukraine
3) Finland
4) Transcaucasia
57. Who I.V. Stalin declared the leader of the "right deviation":
1) L.B. Kamenev
2) N.I. Bukharin
3) S.M. Kurova
4) L.D. Trotsky
58. Attempt on the life of V.I. Lenin and M.S. Uritsky in August 1918 became the reason for:
1) red terror
2) Rebellion of the Czechoslovak Corps
3) The beginning of foreign interventions
4) The beginning of the rebellion of the first SRs
59. The creation of a one-party system led to:
1) changing the internal policy of the Bolsheviks
2) dispersal of the Constituent Assembly
3) the departure of the Bolsheviks of the socialist parties
4) the departure from the Bolsheviks of democratic public organizations
In connection with the abolition of serfdom, the question arose of a new organization of local government. After the liberation of the peasants, it became necessary to create new non-estate bodies of local government.
On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions." These were elected bodies of provincial and district self-government, consisting of representatives of all classes.
According to the regulations of 1864, zemstvo institutions were introduced in 33 provinces of the Russian Empire. They consisted of administrative and executive authorities. The administrative bodies were elected district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, whose deputies were called "vowels". Elections to district zemstvos were held in three curias (groups of voters): 1) landowners, 2) city voters, 3) elected from peasant societies. If in the first two curias the elections were direct, then in the peasant curia they were three-stage: first, the village assembly elected representatives to the volost assembly, at which electors were elected, and then the county congress of electors elected deputies to the county zemstvo assembly.
The county zemstvo assembly met under the chairmanship of the local marshal of the nobility and elected from among its midst as the executive body the county zemstvo council (with a chairman at the head, who was then approved by the governor) and "provincial zemstvo councilors" who made up the provincial zemstvo assembly, which met under the chairmanship of the provincial marshal of the nobility . The latter elected the provincial zemstvo council, the chairman of which was subject to approval by the Minister of the Interior.
The "vowels" of the zemstvo assemblies gathered at annual sessions, which were held openly, and anyone could attend them. They did not receive any remuneration for their activities, in contrast to the members of the zemstvo councils, who acted constantly and received an annual salary.
Zemstvos were deprived of any political rights, their activities were limited only to economic issues: the arrangement and maintenance of schools, hospitals, road construction, care for the development of local trade and industry. They were supported by zemstvo doctors, teachers, veterinarians, agronomists and other employees who made up the so-called "third estate" of zemstvos. These bodies played a huge role in solving local needs. Concerns about public education and the organization of medical care came to the forefront of their activities. Zemstvo doctor has become a symbol of tireless and selfless service to the common people.
On June 16, 1870, Alexander II approved the "City Regulations", which introduced all-estate local self-government in cities, built on the same principles as the zemstvo. Under this law, new government bodies were introduced in 509 cities of Russia - city dumas, elected for four years. In turn, city dumas elected permanent executive bodies - city councils and the mayor. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city council.
Men from the age of 25 had the right to vote, also divided into three curia according to the amount of taxes paid to the city treasury. Each curia elected the same number of "vowels" to the city duma. It is not difficult to guess that under such a system, the vote of a small group of wealthy taxpayers was equal to the voice of several hundred medium and several thousand small ones. The competence of self-government bodies in cities fully corresponded to the competence of zemstvo institutions.
Despite the limitations of these transformations, they were a big step forward, since they replaced the former estate management system with new principles based on the norms of bourgeois law.
"REVOLUTION FROM ABOVE"
It was precisely at the time when zemstvo institutions were introduced in uyezds and provinces that the most important question was being decided: should there not be an All-Russian Zemstvo? If this had happened, a parliament would have been born, albeit a weak, largely deliberative one, and Speransky’s dream would have come true half a century late - the autocracy would have been at least slightly limited by the legislature (recall the Bulygin Duma, similar in idea, which was designed in the summer of 1905) .
Let us allow ourselves some fantasy: in the All-Russian Zemstvo, the landlords, the bourgeoisie, even to some extent the peasantry, the raznochintsy would gain positive and negative political experience, would lay the foundations (albeit not formally, but in fact) of future political parties ...
The autocracy would, to a certain extent, limit itself and at the same time expand its own base, support. Exactly as it was done before the peasant reform, the creation of the Editorial Commissions - only there were exclusively nobles, and then there would also be representatives of other classes.
It was then that an important dispute arose: all-estate self-government or non-estate? In other words, a separate vote for each estate (and, of course, the nobles are presented with the largest number of deputy seats) or - simply the election of one deputy from a certain number of inhabitants (and then, naturally, the majority would be among the peasants),
Representatives of various social groups, from the moderate Slavophiles to the democrat Herzen, defended classlessness. A well-known reform figure A.I. Koshelev almost convinced the tsar that strong public self-government was the only antidote against bureaucracy: "Bureaucracy," he prophesied, "contains in itself the source of past, present, and yet (we hope not for long) future disasters for Russia."
Ivan Aksakov proposed that "the nobility should be allowed solemnly in the face of all of Russia to perform the great act of destroying itself as an estate."
Of course, these ideas did not pass. However, like purely noble claims to strengthen their political influence,
Alexander II did not want to give parliament to some nobles, he was afraid of all estates.
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ZEMSTVOS REGULATED IN THE REGULATIONS OF 1864
I. Management of property, capital and collections of zemstvos.
II. Arrangement and maintenance of buildings belonging to the zemstvo, other structures and means of communication, maintained at the expense of the zemstvo.
III. Measures to ensure people's food.
IV. Managing zemstvo charitable and other charity measures; ways to end begging; the care of building churches.
V. Management of affairs of mutual zemstvo property insurance.
VI. Care for the development of local trade and industry.
VII. Participation, mainly in economic terms and within the limits determined by law, in the care of public education, public health and prisons.
VIII. Assistance in the prevention of livestock deaths, as well as in the protection of grain crops and other plants from extermination by locusts, ground squirrels and other harmful insects and animals.
IX. Fulfillment of the needs of the military and civil administrations assigned to the zemstvo, and participation in cases of postal service.
X. The distribution of those state monetary fees, the distribution of which in the province and counties is assigned to zemstvo institutions, on the basis of laws issued to this effect or special orders approved by the Highest Authority.
XI. Appointment, allocation, collection and spending, on the basis of the Charter on zemstvo duties, local fees, to meet the zemstvo needs of the province or county.
XII. Submission, through the Provincial authorities, to the supreme government of information and conclusions on subjects relating to local economic benefits and needs of the Gubernia or county, and petition on these subjects, also through the Provincial authorities; delivery, according to the requirements of the highest government institutions and the Heads of the Provinces, of information related to the Zemstvo economy.
XIII. Conducting elections for members and other positions in zemstvo institutions and assigning sums for the maintenance of these institutions.
XIV. Cases that will be entrusted to zemstvo institutions on the basis of special charters, regulations or resolutions.
PERSECUTORS OF ZEMSTVO AND ANNIBALS OF LIBERALISM
“The zemstvo reform was one of those concessions that were beaten off from the autocratic government by a wave of public excitement and revolutionary onslaught ....
So, the zemstvos from the very beginning were condemned to become the fifth wheel in the cart of Russian state administration, a wheel allowed by the bureaucracy only insofar as its omnipotence was not violated, and the role of deputies from the population was limited to bare practice, simple technical execution of the range of tasks outlined all the same bureaucracy. The zemstvos did not have their own executive bodies, they had to act through the police, the zemstvos were not connected with each other, the zemstvos were immediately placed under the control of the administration. And, having made such a concession harmless to itself, the government on the very next day after the introduction of the Zemstvo began to systematically restrict and restrict it: the all-powerful bureaucratic clique could not get along with the elected all-estate representation and began to constrain it in every possible way.
JUDICIAL REFORM
On November 20, 1864, new judicial statutes were published. They provided for the lack of estates of the court, the equality of all estates before the law, the adversarial and publicity of the trial. In civil cases, the parties or their representatives spoke before the judges, and in criminal cases, on the one hand, the accuser-prosecutor, and on the other, the defense lawyer of the accused, and his presence at the trial was mandatory. If the accused was not able to pay for the services of a lawyer, the court assigned him a free defense counsel. The institution of judicial investigators was also introduced - special officials who conducted preliminary investigations in criminal cases.
The judiciary has also been reformed. World and crown courts were introduced. The "justices of the peace", elected by district zemstvo assemblies and approved by the Senate, considered small civil claims in the amount of up to 500 rubles. The next instance of the world court was the congresses of justices of the peace, which elected a chairman from among themselves. It was possible to appeal against the decision of the magistrate.
The crown court had two instances: the first instance was the district court, which operated, as a rule, within the same province, which constituted the judicial district, the second - the judicial chamber, which united several judicial districts and was divided into criminal and civil departments. The highest court was the Senate.
District courts and judicial chambers were established for more important criminal and civil cases. 12 jurors, chosen by lot from "local inhabitants of all classes" and recorded in special lists, could take part in the meetings of the district courts and judicial chambers. They established the guilt or innocence of the accused, and the judge determined the punishment. Such a decision of the district court was considered, as a rule, final. The tribunal was the appellate instance if the district court passed the verdict without the participation of jurors.
The Senate, as the highest instance, had the right of cassation (review or annulment of the sentence) of court decisions in case of violation of the lawful procedure for conducting legal proceedings or the discovery of new circumstances in a criminal or civil case. Members of the Senate, chairmen and members of district courts and judicial chambers were approved by the emperor. All appointed members of the court sessions enjoyed the important right of irremovability, that is, they could not be dismissed, except at their own request.
Supervision of the legality of the actions of judicial institutions was entrusted to the chief prosecutor of the Senate, prosecutors of the judicial chambers and district courts, who were subordinate to the Minister of Justice and had their own staff of assistants - prosecutor comrades.
The effect of the new judicial charters extended to 44 Russian provinces. The final reorganization of the judicial administration was completed only by 1896.
The judicial reform was one of the most consistent and successful political transformations of that period. The new courts soon gained great popularity among the population, and the participation of eloquent lawyers in the processes attracted a mass of outsiders to the processes. Embarrassed by the liberalism of the new courts, in 1872 Alexander II withdrew cases of state political crimes from their jurisdiction (which, incidentally, was greatly facilitated by the terrorist activities of the “populists”), which were transferred to the “special presences” of the Senate or judicial chambers.
KNIGHTS OF THE LIVING WORD
Free-thinking people, but not so advanced and active as to rise in the revolutionary struggle against despotism and arbitrariness, went to the bar with the expectation of using the freedom of speech granted to it to expose the vices of the existing system. V. D. Spasovich in 1873, when tsarism had not yet begun to shred the rights of the bar and all the illusions of the first lawyers were still alive, had certain grounds to declare on behalf of his corporation: “We are, to a certain extent, knights of the word of a living, free, more free now, than in print; a word that the most zealous ferocious chairmen will not calm down, because while the chairman is thinking of stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles ahead and cannot be returned. As a result, the Russian legal profession of the 60s and 70s became a concentration of judicial figures who could compete with any European celebrities ... Many of them left the profitable public service for the sake of the legal profession, and seven left the prosecutor's office.
ON THE. Trinity. Tsarism under the judgment of the progressive public. M., 1979
This year ended the Russian-Circassian (Caucasian) war, which lasted 100 years. The year 1864 was very rich in important events for millions of the country's inhabitants, many of which are significant today. But first things first.
The Liberator and his reforms
So they began to call Emperor Alexander II for the fact that in 1861 he abolished serfdom. It was only one, albeit extremely important, event for such a mostly peasant Russian Empire at that time. But the Liberator entered Russian history not only because of him, but also as an autocratic ruler who was not afraid to carry out other large-scale reforms:
Such large-scale reforms carried out by Alexander II resolved many long-standing, even sore, socio-economic problems that hindered the active development of the Russian Empire, cleared the way for capitalism in the country, and significantly increased the possibility of creation.
War and Peace
In 1864, in the Kbaada tract, where the village of Krasnaya Polyana of the resort city of Sochi is located today, a military parade of the Russian army was held on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus in honor of the end of the Russian-Circassian war. In parallel with the flight, the eviction of the local population to the Ottoman, which in every possible way warmed up the war with Russia, Russian families settled this region. So, according to historical data, in 1864, 470 thousand unreconciled highlanders fled abroad, and a little more than 14 thousand Russian families were settled.
In May 1864, Russian troops suppressed a new uprising that had begun the previous year on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuania and Right-Bank Ukraine. For active participation, armed resistance, killings of officials and civilians, 128 people were executed, 12.5 thousand were deported, mainly to Siberia, and 800 were sent to hard labor.
In addition to military, pacifying events, many important, but peaceful events took place in the life of a huge empire in 1864:
- In Moscow, near the Garden Ring, the first zoological garden in the Russian Empire, the future Moscow Zoo, was opened, which today is one of the ten most visited in the world.
- L.N. Tolstoy, while hunting, broke his arm. It did not grow together correctly, so I had to have an operation in Moscow using chloroform. While the hand was healing, the great writer could not do what he loved - writing and hunting.
- The Moscow Archaeological Society was founded. The main goals and objectives are the study of predominantly Russian archeology. In addition to these studies, the members of the society intended to actively engage in numismatics, protection and restoration of ancient monuments, which followed in the future.
Summing up, we can say with confidence that 1864 in the history of Russia was important, in some ways a turning point. Many decisions taken then, the events that took place influenced its further development, the fate of the descendants.
Judgment is coming!
In the 60-70s of the XIX century, a number of reforms were carried out: peasant, military, urban, zemstvo, judicial. All reforms were caused by an urgent need, which was already recognized by the "top", that is, the ruling power.
The judicial system of the state was in a particularly deplorable state: the court acted on the legislation of Peter I, Catherine II, and even in some cases on the Cathedral Code of 1649.
The pre-reform court was very outdated, it was divided into many judicial bodies: courts for peasants, townspeople, nobles, a commercial court, conscientious, boundary and other courts. In addition, provincial governments, police agencies, etc. also performed judicial functions.
The pre-reform court was distinguished by bribery, low legal literacy of judges, and limitedness (the courts decided cases by considering only written materials of the investigation).
The preparation of the judicial reform has been going on for more than 10 years. Back in 1861, more than a dozen bills with proposals for changes in the judicial system were submitted to the State Council, and in 1862 a draft reform was sent to the courts, which was created by a commission headed by State Secretary of the State Council S.I. Zarudny.
The project consisted of three parts: judiciary, civil and criminal proceedings. What was new in this project?
Bessoslovnost.
Cancellation of the system of formal proofs.
Separation of the court from the administration.
Establishing competitiveness, publicity.
Separation of the judiciary from the prosecution.
The introduction of the institution of jurors and advocacy.
Establishment of courts.
Charter of criminal justice.
Charter of civil justice.
The charter about the punishments imposed by justices of the peace.
According to these charters, two judicial systems were created: local (volost, world courts, justices of the peace and their congresses) and general (district, created for several counties), judicial chambers for criminal and civil cases, which extended their activities to several provinces, cassation (for criminal and civil cases) departments of the Senate.
But in the spiritual, military, commercial, peasant spheres, their own jurisdictions operated.
Justices of the peace. They were elected by county zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. world district consisted of a county and its constituent cities. It was divided into world plots with the activities of magistrates in them. Congresses of Justices of the Peace were obliged to consider cassation appeals and protests and to finally decide the cases that were started by district justices of the peace.
Activities of justices of the peace
They had jurisdiction over the cases “On less important crimes and misdemeanors” with sanctions: short-term arrest (up to 3 months), imprisonment in a workhouse for up to 1 year, monetary penalties in the amount of not more than 300 rubles.
In the civil law sphere, they were entrusted with the consideration of cases on personal obligations and contracts (up to 300 rubles), cases related to compensation for damage in the amount of not more than 500 rubles, claims for insult and insult, cases on establishing rights to possession.
District courts established in several counties. Consisted of the chairman of the court and members of the court.
Trial by jury
Cases “of crimes and misdemeanors, entailing punishments connected with the deprivation of all rights of the state, as well as all or some special rights and advantages,” were offered to their court.
A juror could be persons aged 25 to 70 years old, with a residence qualification (2 years). Priests, professional lawyers, teachers, military men, hired workers and servants could not be jurors.
Institute of Investigators
It was established at the district courts, the investigators were supposed to, under the supervision of the prosecutor's office, conduct a preliminary investigation of crimes in the areas that were assigned to them.
Important in the reform: she separated the preliminary investigation from the judicial investigation. The investigation was divided into general (preliminary, without charge) and special (formal, with charge).
Judiciary Building
Judicial chambers
They were assigned cases on complaints (protests) against the verdicts of the district court, cases of state and malfeasance in the 1st instance. Cases were considered with the participation of:
provincial and district marshals of the nobility;
the mayor of the provincial city;
volost foreman.
The court chambers were the court of appeal in cases of district courts considered without the participation of jurors. They could reconsider a case that had already been decided.
Cassation departments of the Senate
They considered complaints and protests about violations of laws, requests for review of sentences (due to newly discovered circumstances), which entered into legal force, cases of official crimes.
A few years later, in 1872, a special presence of the Senate was also established, which considered political matters of particular importance. The political trials of the 1870s showed that the court had ceased to serve as a support for the existing system in Russia. This was especially clear in the justification of Vera Zasulich, who shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov. The jury fully acquitted Zasulich. Therefore, a series of legislative acts followed, which changed the Statutes of 1864.
The departments of the Senate were the cassation bodies for all local and general courts in Russia. They could consider any case decided in the lower instances in violation of the order.
In addition, a new institute was created - advocacy. The governing body of the Bar Association was the Council of Attorneys at Law.
Notary office system
It was created for registration of transactions, certification of business papers. The system was established in provincial and district cities.
The Importance of Judicial Reform
The judicial reform of 1864 was the most consistent and progressive.
She claimed
- Equality of citizens before the law.
- Irremovability of judges and their independence from the administration.
- Publicity of the judiciary.
- Competitive legal proceedings (prosecution-defence);
- Establishment of the bar (sworn attorneys);
- Establishment of the institution of jurors for the consideration of complex criminal cases.
- Creation of a system of fast and free world courts.
As we can see, judicial reform was a significant and progressive step.
The judicial system of Russia according to the reform of 1864
But she had disadvantages and limitations associated with
The jurisdiction of the jury;
- a special procedure for bringing officials to trial;
-relative (rather than complete) independence of judges from the administration (the Minister of Justice appointed judges at his own discretion);
-preservation of class courts (for peasants, clergy, senior officials and military).